Pemimpin Muda dan Rekrutmen Politik

Pemimpin Muda dan Rekrutmen Politik

Dimas Oky Nugroho

(Peneliti di Pusat Kajian Transformasi Sosial (PsaTS) Universitas Airlangga) http://www.seputar-indonesia.com/edisicetak/opini-sore/pemimpin-muda-dan-rekrutmen-politik-3.html

Berkumpulnya para tokoh pemuda yang kebanyakan berlatar belakang ’’ekstra parpol’’ di halaman Gedung Arsip Nasional,Minggu (28/10) lalu,seakan menjawab desakan dan aspirasi yang semakin mencuat akhirakhir ini atas pentingnya kehadiran pemimpin muda alternatif menggantikan figur-figur lama dalam pentas politik nasional.Melalui ikrarnya,mereka bertekad untuk memperkuat proses transformasi menuju Indonesia yang lebih sejahtera dan terbebas dari berbagai bentuk keterpurukan.

Pertanyaannya,sejauh mana relevansi pertemuan dan ikrar kaum muda masyarakat sipil tersebut terhadap proses institusionalisasi demokrasi dan realitas politik yang menempatkan secara eksklusif institusi parpol dalam ’’menghadirkan’ kepemimpinan nasional? ’’Zaman Bergerak’’ vs ’’Zaman Transisi’’ Para tokoh dan aktivis pemuda 2007 ini gemas dan marah dengan kondisi Indonesia yang tak kunjung pulih dari krisis nasional. Kesejahteraan yang tak membaik, pengangguran yang meningkat, kebijakan sosial-ekonomi yang tidak prorakyat, ketergantungan dalam politik internasional, kepemimpinan nasional yang lemah, tantangan antipluralisme,korupsi yang masih saja merajalela,dan ancaman terhadap demokrasi yang selalu di depan mata. Partai politik, institusi yang menjadi penyangga proses institusionalisasi demokrasi dan seleksi kepemimpinan politik,pun menjadi sorotan utama. Parpol dinilai miskin kreasi dan prestasi; minus dalam program kerja; lemah dalam rekrutmen,inisiatif dan independensi; elitis dibanding mengakar; tak sedikit yang terjebak dalam politik komunalisme,klientalisme,dan pragmatisme politik-ekonomi.

Kondisi ’’zaman transisi’’ ini dianggap sebuah penurunan jika dibanding dengan masa pergerakan nasional awal abad ke-20,periode yang dilukiskan Takashi Shiraishi sebagai the age in motion alias ’’zaman bergerak’’. Berbagai inisiatif dan bentuk kreativitas ’’baru’’ gerakan politik mulai surat kabar,tulisan,propaganda, novel dan karya sastra; pertemuan dan rapat akbar; pendirian serikat buruh, organisasi dan partai; hingga pada aksi mogok dan pemberontakan mewarnai pergerakan yang dipelopori kaum muda bumi putra saat itu.

Puncaknya saat mereka berhasil membangun ikrar berbangsa satu dan berbahasa satu Indonesia.Dengan demikian,mereka ’’menjadi sejarah’’ karena dengan segala keterbatasannya mampu membangun apa yang disebut Ernest Renan sebagai ’’sebuah solidaritas masif yang tercipta dari penderitaan bersama”.Mereka berhasil membangun sebuah bangsa. ’’Kader-kader’’ politik muda transformatif sedemikian menjadi begitu langka pada zaman transisi saat ini.

Padahal, esensi pergerakan rakyat di era zaman bergerak masih sangat relevan di era zaman transisi.Shiraishi menjelaskan,kader-kader politik muda yang terdiri dari kelompok terpelajar bumi putra saat itu bergerak mencari bentuk untuk menampilkan kesadaran politik yang baru,menggerakkan pikiran dan gagasan baru,dalam menghadapi kenyataan dunia yang bergerak menuju sesuatu perubahan. Tantangan yang sama sesungguhnya masih kita saksikan pada saat ini. Pasang-surut demokratisasi dan proses pembangunan ekonomi ditambah dinamika globalisasi telah memberikan kesempatan baru dan menyisakan perdebatan sekaligus tekanan baru bagi nation-stateIndonesia.

Institusionalisasi demokrasi yang diupayakan pasca Orde Baru demi menjamin hadirnya rotasi kepemimpinan dan rekrutmen politik yang sehat dan terbuka kenyataannya tak cukup mampu menghadirkan kualitas kepemimpinan dan kader politik yang mampu mempercepat perubahan dan mengawal proses demokratisasi. Kekesalan Ernesto ’’Che’’ Guevara terhadap mandeknya revolusi Congo menjadi sahih untuk kita pinjam dalam melihat kondisi Indonesia saat ini.

’’Mustahil bisa kita ’’bebaskan’’ sebuah bangsa yang tak memiliki desire to fight…”,ujar Che,di mana para pemimpinnya hanya sibuk mengejar kekuasaan dan kemewahan.Etos moral perjuangan yang menurun diperparah dengan situasi di mana,’’…organizational work is almost non-existent since the middle-rank cadres do not work,do not know how to work and inspire no confidence in anyone…”. Partai Politik dan Proses Rekrutmen Agar lebih produktif,diskusi publik tentang pemimpin muda harus diarahkan kepada peningkatan kualitas proses rekrutmen politik dan sistem kaderisasi yang berlangsung dalam tubuh partai. Sistem kaderisasi dan rotasi kepemimpinan partai harus mampu merangsang kemunculan kader dan calon pemimpin politik muda yang transformatif, ulet,dan bervisi progresif-kebangsaan.

Mempercepat konsolidasi demokrasi termasuk pemerintahan yang bersih dan efektif,memperkuat rekatan kebangsaan,serta membuka akses kesejahteraan,keberdayaan,dan keadilan bagi seluruh rakyat dapat dijadikan common platformoleh kaderkader politik muda yang tersebar untuk mendorong perubahan. Dibutuhkan penguatan sinergi dengan kalangan masyarakat sipil dan kelompok intelektual-aktivis untuk melahirkan kader dan kepemimpinan politik yang relevan dengan tuntutan zaman. Membangun pelatihan dan pendidikan politik bagi kader-kader politik sebaiknya tak hanya bertujuan agar memiliki keahlian berorganisasi dan berpartai, juga mampu mempertajam visi dan andal merajut tali rekat kebangsaan serta teknik advokasi-fasilitasi khas aktivis masyarakat sipil.Hal itu agar kepentingan serta kebutuhan masyarakat konstituen dan akar rumput dapat difasilitasi dan diperjuangkan dalam sebuah program politik yang transparan, akuntabel,efektif,dan efisien.(*)

Korelasi Islam dan Radikalisme

Korelasi Islam dan Radikalisme
Oleh: Ranang Aji SP
Deputi Publikasi PsaTS Unair
http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0211/07/kha2.htm

ISLAM dalam sepanjang sejarah mengalami masa silih berganti. Pada awal pertumbuhannya, Islam adalah sebuah ajaran yang masih murni dihayati sebagai keyakinan terhadap ketauhidan atau monoteisme. Keyakinan akan keesaan Tuhan Sang Pencipta diterjemahkan dan diimplementasikan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, seperti tidak mengagungkan apa pun di dunia ini kecuali kepada Allah Sang Mahaesa.

Masa-masa itu kemudian dikenal sebagai generasi Salaf, Tabi’in dan Tabi’it. Sebuah lingkungan masa yang dipastikan sebagai kesempurnaan generasi muslimin dalam menghayati dan mengaplikasikan ajaran Muhammad SAW.

Seperti apa yang tercatat dalam sejarah Islam, agama ini sebuah kesatuan ajaran tentang nilai kemanusiaan dan keharusannya. Muhammad SAW mengajarkan bagaimana seseorang harus hidup di dalam lingkungan sosial yang luas. Beliau juga mengajarkan bagaimana berniaga yang adil atau meratakan sebuah kepentingan ekonomi bersama. Rasul Allah ini secara umum mengajarkan – apa yang kita sebut sebagai politik. Di dalamnya tentu saja memuat tentang hukum, ekonomi dan norma sosial. Seluruh ajaran ini bukan saja merupakan kegiatan yang terputus pada soal dunia saja, tetapi meliputi konsekuensi horizontal maupun vertikal atau berimplikasi ibadah kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Kuasa. Seluruh kegiatan ini melahirkan sanksi dan pahala.

Sebagai sebuah ajaran (secara umum) politis, penguasa tunggalnya adalah Allah Yang Maha Penguasa, seperti tertulis di dalam Alquran, “Kerajaan langit dan bumi adalah milik Allah, dan kepada Allah-lah segala urusan dikembalikan. (QS Al-Hadid: 5).

Islam di masa Muhammad pun berkembang ke seluruh dunia dengan cara damai maupun perang dalam rangka menyeru kalimat La illahaillallah. Sejarah dunia pun mencatat kekuasaan Islam mencapai hampir seperempat dunia, hingga kekhalifahan di Turki abad 20.
Di dalam masa kehidupan yang mutakhir, Islam adalah sebuah ajaran yang tereduksi sedemikian rupa. Islam berkembang menurut konteksnya dan bukan teksnya. Ia tumbuh dan terbelah seperti halnya sel-sel jamur. Pada setiap belahan hidup dan berkembang menurut apa yang diyakini dan ditafsirkannya.

Kondisi ini pun sebenarnya telah diprediksi oleh Muhammad SAW di dalam hadisnya, “Umat Yahudi akan terpecah menjadi 71 golongan, semua masuk neraka kecuali satu. Umat Nasrani terpecah menjadi 72 golongan, semua masuk neraka kecuali satu. Dan demi jiwaku yang ada di dalam genggaman-Nya, umatku akan terpecah menjadi 73 golongan, semua masuk neraka kecuali satu golongan, yaitu Al-jama’ah.”

Kemudian seorang sahabat bertanya, siapa Al-jama’ah itu? Muhammad SAW pun kemudian menerangkan bahwa mereka adalah segolongan umat yang teguh mengikuti jalannya (sunah) dan jalan para sahabatnya. (Ash-Shahihah, 1492). Radikalisme atau fundamentalisme sebenarnya tidak ada di dalam terminologi Islam, khususnya pada kamus sekte di tubuh Islam. Istilah ini dikenalkan dan dikembangkan oleh Barat untuk menyebut kelompok Islam murni.
Kelompok ini disinyalir telah melakukan berbagai aksi kekerasan atau teror terhadap masyarakat Barat. Aksi itu muncul setelah kaum Yahudi yang didukung oleh Barat mendirikan negara di tanah bangsa Palestina sejak tahun 1947.

Aksi-aksi tersebut oleh sebagian masyarakat dunia (Timur) diyakini bertujuan untuk mencoba menghancurkan hegemoni Barat terhadap dunia muslim. Barat meyakini aksi mereka bertujuan penyebaran “kejahatan” di muka bumi. Dua keyakinan itu, merupakan dua hal yang sama-sama sahnya.
Terlepas dari kenyataan di atas, pertanyaan seharusnya diajukan: Apakah Islam membenarkan kekerasan?

Islam dan Kekerasan

Banyak tokoh Islam kita menyitir kalimat ini,”Islam adalah rahmat bagi semesta alam” atau Islam memayungi seluruh alam beserta isinya sebagai sebuah apologis terhadap tudingan kalangan Barat. Lantas mereka pun secara aktif melakukan kampanye perdamaian. Kalimat rahmat bagi semesta alam bukan merupakan jargon semata, karena sesungguhnya kalimat itu adalah substansi dari Islam itu sendiri. Namun demikian, aksi terorisme yang dituduhkan Barat kepada kaum muslimin begitu nyata.

Stigma buruk pun kemudian diyakinkan oleh masyarakat dunia terhadap kaum muslimin. Lalu, bagaimanakah sebenarnya kedudukan kekerasan di dalam Islam atau benarkah Islam merestui adanya kekerasan? Jawabannya adalah ya dan tidak. Islam seperti halnya yang dipahami di atas adalah sebuah ajaran tentang keyakinan di mana segala perilaku sosial-politik beranjak dari hukum Tuhan (Nomokrasi). Kekerasan ada dan diatur di dalam bab-bab Jihad dan Amar Ma’ruf Nahi Munkar.

Seperti Firman Allah dalam Alquran, “Diwajibkan bagi kamu berperang, sedangkan (perang) itu adalah kebencian kalian, dan kiranya kalian membenci sesuatu, sedangkan ia baik bagi kamu, dan sekiranya kalian menyukai sesuatu, sedangkan ia buruk bagi kalian. Dan Allah mengetahui akan sesuatu, sedangkan kalian tidak mengetahuinya.” (QS Al Baqoroh: 216).
Dari ayat ini kita memahami kekerasan di dalam Islam dibolehkan, tetapi dengan syarat tentu saja haruslah berada pada wi layah perang yang terbuka.Islam tentu saja tidak merestui penyerangan terhadap masyarakat sipil.

Dalam sebuah peperangan, apa pun bentuknya, masyarakat muslim terikat kaidah atau norma-norma agamanya. Bahkan Abu Bakar Ash-shidiq RA, dalam pidato pelepasan pasukannya, membekali umat Islam dengan larangan membunuh: pohon-pohon, anak-anak, wanita, orang tua, para pendeta dan melarang menghancurkan gedung-gedung atau gereja.
Di dalam konteks amar ma’ruf nahi munkar, kekerasan di dalam Islam pun dianjurkan, seperti halnya yang telah dilakukan oleh Front Pembela Islam (FPI), meskipun dengan batas-batas tertentu pula dalam rangka taat kepada Allah azza wa jalla.

Kata Alquran, “Dan hendaklah di antara kalian suatu umat yang menyeru kepada kebajikan, menyuruh berbuat ma’ruf dan melarang berbuat munkar”. (QS Ali Imron: 104), kemudian Muhammad SAW pun memerintahkan, “Barang siapa di antara kalian yang melihat kemungkaran, maka hendaklah ia mengubah dengan tangannya (kekuatan), kalau tidak dapat dengan lidahnya, kalau tidak dapat juga dengan hatinya, itu adalah selemah-lemahnya iman.” (HR Bukhary dan Muslim).

Rasul Allah itu pun memperingatkan, “Tidak ada suatu kaum yang di tengah-tengah mereka dilakukan maksiat kemudian mereka mampu mengubahnya melainkan Allah akan menyegerakan untuk meratakan siksaan-Nya kepada mereka.” (HR Abu Dawud dan Ibnu Majah).
Sebagai sebuah catatan akhir, saya tidak membuat kesimpulan, tetapi menarik untuk mengutip apa yang pernah dikatakan oleh penyair besar Jerman Goethe dan sejarawan Inggris Thomas Carlyle di dalam bukunya On Heroes, Hero-worship and Heroic in History, dan pada ceramahnya The Hero is Prophet, Mahomed, Islam (Jurnal UQ, Risalah: Ensiklopedi Alquran):
Betapa aneh, bahwa dalam kasus khusus seseorang memuji jalannya sendiri!
Pabila Islam berarti “pasrah kepada kehendak Tuhan”, maka hanya dalam Islam kita semua akan hidup dan mati.
…..demikianlah pada halnya ‘islam’. Bahwa kita mesti menyerahkan diri kita kepada Tuhan. Bahwa seluruh kekuatan kita terletak pada penyerahan diri yang menyeluruh kepada-Nya, apa pun tindakan-Nya kepada kita.

Untuk kehidupan di dunia ini atau untuk kehidupan yang lain nanti! Apa pun yang diturunkan kepada kita, apakah itu kematian atau lebih buruk lagi dari itu, akan baik dan terbaik; kita menyerahkan diri kepada Tuhan. Apabila ini ‘Islam’, kata Goethe, “apakah kita semua tidak hidup dalam Islam?”. Ya, semua kita yang memiliki suatu kehidupan moral, akan hidup secara demikian.

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Participatory Budgeting and Sustainable Development

participatory-budgeting-and-sustainable-development-in-porto-alegre-brazil.docparticipatory-budgeting-and-sustainable-development-in-porto-alegre-brazil.doc

Reflection of the Meaning of Peace and Conflict

Reflection of the Meaning of Peace and Conflict;

 

Interpretation and Implementation of Peace

 

In Indonesia and Nigeria

 

By:

 

Erna Anjarwati

 

September 28^th, 2007

 

Introduction

What is the meaning of Peace and Conflict? Is there any exact meaning to answer those notions? Believe it or not, from the historical up to the contemporary context, both concepts are still debatable. The particular answer is very simple but plausible, because these notions, particularly peace is related to the word “perceived”, an abstract meaning that is very difficult to translate uniformly. Everybody, every group, every organization, every society and even every state has a different understanding of them based on what they have perceived before. Moreover, in order to have a better understanding of those concepts, we also have to take into consideration some background aspects that have created both perspectives, such as culture, religion, mother tongue, national constitution and International Law. All these aspects are related to each other, constructing the meaning of peace and conflict personally, in a group, a larger society and the state. It means that both concepts must be elaborated holistically based on those components which can not be separated from each other.

Peace never goes alone because it is related to the word perceived, it depicts a relationship between peace and conflicts that can be translated as an energetic concept, where is body, mind and soul are all components. In the modernity and transrational context, furthermore, the meaning of Peace and Conflict include the reason, truth and soul as the basic components that can describe comprehensively between reality and spirituality whereby human being also needs for spiritual level in their live as an entity in balancing. Moreover, in this context, the main idea’s to adhere to those components as an entity that can construct the perception of Peace and Conflict is more stressed out on how do their communicate each other to establish peaceful relationship beyond limit of rationality. As human beings, we are challenged by this limitation but answer that by twisting the reduction of rationality into the more holistic rational approach includes the spiritual level.

Therefore, in order to lead better understanding on interpretation of peace and conflict; multiple perspectives and a multicultural background of those interpretations can enrich our insight on its holism. This essay, consequently, is going to elaborate the interpretation of peace and conflict based on several meanings, particularly the differences of them on mother tongue as gathered by the sharing and brainstorming of the International Peace Studies students in group C during the round table discussions. In this particular essay, I would like to put my perspective on the one and only interpretation of peace and conflict based on a Nigeria mother tongue and constitution compared to Indonesian. It chosen due to similarities between both countries that have faced colonialization, and both countries have been facing many cases of ethnic conflicts that can turn into cleavages of national unity.

The Meaning of Peace and Conflict

Based on Nigeria and Indonesia’s Mother Tongue

Salama and Damai, are two notions of Peace translated into Nigerian and Indonesian mother tongues. For African societies, Salama has a meaning as harmony, stability and calmness. It is grabbed of Arabic root, which is Salam, and has a similar meaning. Salama is created to unite more than 400 ethnic groups which are spread out in Africa. Contradictory of Salama, Nigerian societies have Kikici and Tarzoma to express a perception of conflict. In this context, Kikici can be translated as trouble, whereas Tarzoma is similar to riot or chaos. Both of these notions depict class conflict and civil war in Nigerian. Therefore both of these words describe a conflict on the largest level of Nigerian society. Furthermore, the mother tongue of Nigerian also mentions Rashin Jituwa and Tashin Haakali to further describe disharmony and tension in African Culture. These notions seem to describe latent conflicts that emerge in the smaller scope of the society, such as inter-group or inter-personal conflicts. Such conflict can trigger a high tension and even civil war, particularly if the conflict is invoking ethnic groups as the primarily parties.

Undoubtedly, ethnic conflicts are the one of the largest threats to national unity. This is not limited to Nigeria but exists also in Indonesia, a country that has more less 400 ethnic groups who live all over Indonesia with different mother tongues, cultures, customs, values and norms. Definitely, according to the Bahasa Indonesia as a mother tongue, the meaning of peace is similar to damai, which can be translated as the absence of war, or in the simple meaning is joyful. This word is not the one and only that can depict the meaning of peace in Bahasa, also we can use tenteram which has a similar meaning to damai. Both of these notions are usually used to describe the harmonization and stability of society, in which there is no physical violence or war at all. Moreover, it can depict a situation or condition when basic need of the society can be fulfilled by the government or local authority in the district and every people can respect on each other. On the contrary, Bahasa Indonesia also mentions about Huru-Hara and Kekerasan which can be translated as conflict. In this context, Huru-Hara tends to be interpreted to the larger conflict in society or even intra states. This conflict is always invoked a lot of people to struggle or fight to each other in achieving their interests. It also describes armed conflict in Indonesia during the New Order regime from 1965 to 1998 to show their powerness in order to oppress the contra parties. Additionally, Kekerasan in Bahasa Indonesia interprets the smaller level of violence, such as inter-personal, domestic violence, and inter or intra small groups’ conflict.

Similarities of Peace Interpretation

In Indonesia and Nigeria

For some reasons, Damai and Tenteram, sometimes are not enough to consider unity as the most important point that must become priority on behalf of unity in diversity in Indonesia. Conflict itself in Indonesia is always referred to the term SARA (Suku, Agama, Ras, dan Antar Golongan) or we can say it as Ethnic, Religion, Race and Inter Group. It describes conflicts that have occurred in Indonesia are more less colored by those issues. Therefore, in order to reduce such conflicts, Indonesian government uses the concept of Bhinneka Tunggal Ika or in English means Unity in Diversity as the way to unite Indonesian people to live in harmony, respect on differences, and cooperate together to develop Indonesia, in both improving human being quality and building superstructure. Basically, the concept of Bhinneka Tunggal Ika tends to be rooted on social and cultural values of Indonesian society. The concept itself took from Sanskrit which is already existed in the era of Majapahit Kingdom. They have created this concept to unite all over Indonesia because they were recognized that many differences in Indonesian’s social and cultural context will trigger social conflicts in the near future that can affect to their authority and power as the biggest kingdom in Indonesia before century. The concept was completely succeeded to prevent ethnic conflicts in Indonesia, particularly on the era of Majapahit kingdom.

Furthermore, this concept is maintained as national identity, once Indonesia became independent from the Dutch in 1945. It is even established as Indonesian national constitution which called Pancasila or five fundamental Principles of Indonesian people to guide their live in society, composed of belief in one God, Humanity, National Unity, Consultative Democracy, and Social Justice. Consequently, there are only five main religion that recognized by Indonesian government, composed of Islam, Christian, Catholic, Hindu and Buddha. Therefore, many Indonesian traditional religions that have been belief by many ethnic Indigenous are not recognized at all in the constitution. Furthermore, Pancasila which has created by the former President Soekarno became basic reference to create the constitution of Republic of Indonesia in 1945 in which some articles in the constitution are not more than detail elaboration of Pancasila.

As similar as Indonesia, Nigeria also has such concept to unite Nigerian people which are mentioned in their national constitution in both 1967 and 1999 as Peace and Unity. It is created in 1960, once Nigeria became independent from British by Nigerian official government which aimed to remain as one state. It is also implemented to create harmony and prevent ethno religious conflicts in Nigeria since they have about 400 different ethnic groups and two main official religions, composed of Islam and Christian. Moreover, Nigeria has also African traditional religion as ethnic groups’ belief which tends to be closed to animism and dynamism. However, same as situation in Indonesia, this religion is not recognized by Nigerian government and further there is no official recognition in Nigerian constitution that mention about this issue. Additionally, Nigeria does not has a native official language as national identity that can unite all Nigerian people, because their official language is English adapted from British colonial.

Those discrimination issues have led Nigeria to the long period of ethnic and ethnic religious conflicts, either as manifest or latent conflicts which threat Nigeria’s security as a state. As it is in Indonesia, ethnic and ethnic religious conflicts become threaten of peace, unity and diversity in Indonesia since many ethnic groups, particularly indigenous people who declared to be separated from Indonesia due to their disappointed to the Indonesian government that ignored and unrecognized their native land, cultures and languages as a part of Indonesian diversity. Presently, the queries are how does those concepts effective to prevent or at least to reduce the ethnic and ethnic religious conflicts in Nigeria and Indonesia in the contemporary context? Or on the contrary, are those concepts being used to preserve status quo of current government?

Implementation of Peace Interpretation

In Indonesia and Nigeria

As a concept to prevent conflict, both Bhinneka Tunggal Ika and Peace and Unity sound convincingly to maintain a country in unity, harmony and peaceful in the social as well as cultural interaction of society and far away from conflicts, violence or even war. Nevertheless, it seems really hard to implement it in a country that has diversity in cultural, language, ethnic and religion, such as Indonesia and Nigeria. For many reasons, those concept often used as a tool of propaganda by the current government to preserve their status quo as well as interests on behalf of nation and state.

In Indonesia for instance, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika has used by Soeharto’s regime as a tool to protect his status quo for more over 32 years. During his period, he cooperated with many foreign private companies to explore abundant natural resources, such as mining, gold, copper and etc on the ancestral domain of the Indigenous people who spread out all over Indonesia under the cloak of welfare distribution for Indonesian people. However, in fact, the benefit went to his family and allies. These grievances from ethnic groups, particularly indigenous people were latent conflict during Soeharto’s regime but once he fallen down from his position as a president in 1998, many ethnic conflicts erupted uncontrolled.

The same situation is also occurred in the contemporary context in Nigeria, in which ethnic and ethnic religious conflicts are constantly erupted in Nigeria due to two main contradictions. Primarily, is related to identity of the ethnic groups when each group wants to maintain their identity exclusively and be separated from each other. Secondly, is regarding access to the abundant economic power which carried out by the government. Both of these reasons are the current prime obstacles to prevent conflict and create peace in Nigeria although both reasons are completely opposite to Nigerian national Constitution in 1976. Definitely, this constitution is written mention about national character was to take care ethnic diversity and ensure political position and shared by all the ethnic groups. In addition, national character makes a mandatory of requirements for the representation all of ethnic groups in both civil service and political position. However, in fact, that is completely opposite and hard to implement throughout vested interests of ethnic groups and Nigerian government.

Conclusion

Many people interpret that peace and conflict are attached each other and can not be separated. On the other side, other people believe that peace is completely separated to the perception of conflict. A lot of perception and interpretation of the meaning of peace and conflict are still debatable currently. Direct or indirect, those meanings have been constructing the way people think and perceive them. Both are constructed by many different cultures, religions, customs, languages, etc that consequently produce a different point of view of individual, groups, organization, and even state.

For many reasons, particularly in the contemporary context, both concepts are often misused by the government as a tool to spread out the propaganda in order to preserve their status quo. Therefore, conflict are still being a dilemma in the current society that can trigger violence and war in the near future, particularly for the country which has diversity in their cultural, social, religions, languages, races, ethnics and etc. In this particular reason, government must be proactive to create peace that based on appreciation of the differences and build up the concept unity in diversity by implementing it carefully and appropriately in the society without any hidden interests.

 

WARNA-WARNI PEMAKNAAN MANUSIA TERHADAP AGAMA

WARNA-WARNI PEMAKNAAN MANUSIA TERHADAP AGAMA

Oleh

Airlangga Pribadi

 

http://www.geocities.com/psats_unair/WARNA_WARNI-Airlangga_Pribadi.pdf

 

Sastrawan multikulturalis asal Lebanon Amin Maalouf dalam karyanya “InThe Name of Identity” memberikan pernyataan reflektif sekaligus menggelitikberkaitan dengan hubungan antara identitas kultural, manusia dan agama. Menurutnyasering kita terlalu melebih-lebihkan pengaruh agama terhadap manusia dankebudayaannya, namun sementara itu kerapkali kita mengesampingkan pengaruh dari manusia terhadap wajah agama. Pernyataan singkat ini memiliki makna yang luas seputar hubungan antara identitas, cultural, manusia dan agama.

Dalam perdebatan antara hubungan antara manusia dan agama, khususnya hubungan antara Islam dan para penganutnya seringkali kita terjebak dalam paradoks dua kutub ekstrem pandangan kontradiktif yang bersifat esensialis namun memiliki banyak kemiripan satu sama lain. Pada satu kutub adalah pandangan dari kalanganorientalis maupun akademisi (seperti Daniel Pipes, Bernard Lewis, dan SamuelHuntington) yang melihat bahwa Islam sebagai suatu agama memiliki sumbangan

besar dalam membentuk karakter kultural ummatnya yang bertentangan dengan nilainilaimodernitas. Pada kutub lainnya adalah pandangan yang terinspirasi oleh tokoh-tokoh kalangan fundamentalis (Sayyid Qutb, Taqiyuddin An-Nabhani, Abul A’la al-Mawdudi)—dimana ciri khas pemikiran mereka adalah produksi jawaban-jawaban apologetik untuk memberikan pembelaan terhadap keutamaan Islam dalam membentuk kebudayaan dari ummatnya sambil memberikan batasan eksklusif bahwa Islam lebih unggul dan berbeda dengan nilai- nilai peradaban lainnya.

Ibarat musuh dalam cermin, dua pandangan yang saling bertentangan satu sama lain ini bertemu pada satu karakter diskursif. Keduanya sama-sama berpendapat bahwa setiap keyakinan memiliki tata nilai yang bersifat tetap, tidak berubah dan determinatif dalam mempengaruhi karakter dari para pemeluknya. Hal yang dilupakan oleh dua wacana esensialis ini dalam melihat hubungan antara agama dan komunitas pemeluknya, apabila wajah agama adalah bersifat monolitik dan tidak berubah, bagaimana mungkin kita dapat mengenal berbagai wajah peradaban Islam yang plural dan berbeda-beda dalam setiap momen sejarah.

Sejarah-termasuk juga sejarah agama- memiliki karakteristik khas yang ditandai oleh pola synchronic (ketersambungan) dan pola diachronic (keterputusan) (Fernand Braudel 1979). Sejarah dunia muslim menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat menciptakan wajah agama sesuai dengan keadaan mentalitas dirinya. Pada tiap momen sejarah terdapat berbagai macam ekspresi dari peradaban Islam yang tidak pernah sama walaupun setiap peradaban tersebut dihubungan oleh jaringan warisan symbol, khasanah tradisi dan keyakinan khas.

Apabila saat ini kita disodorkan oleh citra yang dikonstruksi oleh media massa tentang wajah Islam Taliban yang besifat radikal, eksklusif, anti HAM dan cenderung pada tindakan kekerasan dengan gambaran karikatural tentang ancaman Islam militant yang akan menyerang Amerika dan Eropa; jauh merentang pada abad 9M-10 M peradaban Islam yang dibangun oleh imperium Dinasti Buwaihiyyah di Baghdad telah menghasilkan peradaban yang berkarakter kosmopolitan sebagai arena sirkulasi ide-ide intelektual filsafat Yunani. Mereka maknai iman Islam mereka dalam semangat toleransi dan inklusifitas yang menandai massa renaisans Islam (Joel L. Kraemer; 1986).

Abad membangun guratan tinta emas kebesaran peradaban dan budaya yang gemilang. Agar tidak berputar-putar pada argumentasi apologetic tentang kebesaran peradaban Islam, pelajaran penting yang dapat kita ambil dari jejak histories tersebut adalah Islam dalam berbagai perwujudannya selalu menampilkan mentalitas masyarakat pada zamannya.

Ketika masyarakat Islam tidak dalam posisi marjinal dan memiliki rasa percaya diri yang besar dalam menentukan wajah peradaban dunia, maka masyarakat Muslim yang penuh percaya diri, terbuka, dan progresif memunculkan wajah Islam yang kosmopolitan, inklusif dan berkarakter liberal. Sementara posisi masyarakat muslim yang dalam keadaan terpuruk dan tertekan menampilkan karakter masyarakat Muslim yang bersifat paranoid, eksklusif dan reaktif, kondisi demikian juga memunculkan wajah Islam yang tertutup, anti dialog dan terbiasa menggunakan bahasa kekerasan akibat perasaan putus asa yang mereka rasakan.

Tantangan Globalisasi

Saat ini merupakan salah satu momen yang menentukan dalam membangun konstruksi peradaban Islam mendatang. Kondisi mentalitas dari masyarakat muslim memberikan andil besar untuk melahirkan wajah agamanya di masa depan. Ketika dunia telah bergerak dengan cepat bahkan berlari tunggang langgang ditengah proses perubahan global yang begitu cepat, masyarakat muslim dituntut untuk merevitalisasi diri dan membangun identitasnya dengan penuh kepercayaan diri sebagai bagian dari warga dunia.

Namun demikian kerapkali kita mendengar keluhan-keluhan pesimis tentang

hantaman-hantaman cultural terhadap ummat Islam akibat arus besar gelombang kemodernan dan globalisasi. Perubahan social yang tengah berlangsung ini secara tergopoh-gopoh dimaknai oleh sebagian ummat Islam sebagai hantu yang selalu merongrong, iman, kepercayaan dan nilai-nilai fundamental agama. Sering kita merasa terdesak dalam kepungan arus besar globalisasi sehingga kita pertahankan agamanya secara defensif dan begitu gigih untuk membendung pengaruh dari multikulturalisme, suara-suara pembebasan, sampai ke pop culture.

Arus besar suara dipermukaan di masyarakat Islam seringkali mengeluh meratapi begitu kuatnya penetrasi budaya global yang menghantam nilai- nilai suci dan teks sakral yang mereka genggam erat-erat. Padahal justru tanpa kita sadari pada titik tolak inilah ummat Islam dapat membangun pahatan-pahatan indah bagi perjalanan sejarahnya di masa depan. Saat ini ummat Islam didorong secara terus menerus untuk memaknai kembali dirinya dan melakukan penafsiran dihadapan berbagai isu- isu seperti hubungan antara agama dan negara, kesetaraan gender dan hak-hak kaum perempuan, kebebasan berfikir, dialog antar iman, demokratisasi politik dan budaya, dan penerimaan secara inklusif terhadap warna-warni identitas manusia.

Kemampuan ummat Islam untuk merekonsiliasikan dirinya dengan berbagai

tantangan perubahan global secara kreatif dan cerdas tentunya akan menciptakan tekstur peradaban Islam mendatang yang progresif, liberatif dan toleran. Agama membebaskan yang lahir dari rahim komunitas muslim yang percaya diri dan terbuka terhadap setiap kemungkinan perubahan selanjutnya akan menciptakan suatu peradaban yang progresif dan terbuka.

Perjalanan untuk membangun komunitas masyarakat muslim yang inklusif, kreatif dan berkarakter kosmopolitan, tentunya bukanlah perjalanan yang mudah. Jalan yang terjal, berliku dan mendaki merupakan tantangan yang harus dihadapi oleh komunitas Islam yang mencita-citakan terbangunnya suatu kebudayaan Islam yang bersifat liberatif. Saat ini wacana-wacana liberal dan inklusif masih menjadi subaltern knowledge (pengetahuan yang terpinggirkan) ditengah dominasi narasi pengetahuan patriarkhi, anti liberal dan eksklusif yang masih menjadi dominant discourse di dunia

Islam. Sehingga diperlukan waktu yang panjang dan kegigihan dari kalangan agensi inetelektual muslim liberal terus menerus terlibat dalam kerja-kerja praksis- intelektual untuk membangun pemaknaan yang liberatif mengenai agamanya dan membangun jaringan komunikasi interkultural dengan peradaban lainnya untuk menyemai benihbenih semangat keterbukaan, pembebasan dan perubahan di masyarakat Islam (*).

costa rican dance

Love in the Free Market

Love in the Free Market;

Human Trafficking and Sexual Slavery Practices

In Thailand’s Sex Industry

 

Erna Anjarwati

Researcher at Human Rights Center

United Nations-University for Peace

 

Introduction

“It’s really difficult if your mum asks you to get money to feed the family, you want to help. Therefore, finally I decided to come with my aunt from the countryside to work in the seaside resort of Pattaya. I was only 16 at the time and my family had various problems in financial, so I was just working everything out” (Keng, Chiang Rai Girl, the interview has taken on June 7^th, 2007 at 5.37am in Patpong area, Bangkok).

            Tourism is one, if not the main driving fuel of Thailand’s economy. Despite the tsunami incident, the sporadic religious conflicts, political issues and also the increasing competition coming from neighboring countries, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, China and India, however, tourism in Thailand is still growing nowadays and be the famous one in Asia even in the wide world. Sadly though, commercialized sex and prostitution are generally acknowledged and even perpetuated as integral factors contributing to the miracle growth in the country which is known as Asian Adults Playground for many foreigners.

            Sex industry in Thailand can not be separated by trafficking issue in Mekong region, which is composed of Thailand itself, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Burma. Trafficking in Mekong Region is predominantly from rural to urban areas, from poor to wealthier country, such Thailand. Therefore, it reflects both the growth in the sex industry and the commoditization of children, women and Indigenous people who live in the Northern East part of Thailand.  According to Malarek explanation, Trafficking in human beings is now the third largest moneymaking venture in the world, after illegal weapons and drugs. (Malarek, 1998, p.32). Moreover, Richard Poulin, a Sociologist of the Ottawa University, Canada based on his sociology’s perspective, argues that the sex industry in many part of the world has come to occupy a strategic and central position in the development as impact of globalization and international capitalism. For this reason the sex trade is increasingly taking on the guise of an ordinary sector of the economy (Poulin, 2003, pp. 38-43).

Referring to the explanation above, the author argues that human trafficking and sexual slavery in the sex trade issues in Thailand are also back grounded by the reason that capitalist globalization practices nowadays has been embedded to the social and cultural context of the Thai society. In the Thai current society, globalization and sex trade itself involve an unprecedented commodification of human beings, particularly women and children, which is direct or indirect, it has created a market of sexual exchanges which has been generated through the massive deployment of prostitution in which million of women, children, and Indigenous People in Mekong Region have been converted into sexual commodities. The industrialization of prostitution, traffic in women and children, and sexual tourism in Thailand are the free marginal market which deteriorated by increasingly central aspect of current capitalist globalization. Nowadays, prostitution and human trafficking are just some of the activities which the sex industry in Thailand has come to be known around the world for. Furthermore, the next question on addressing these issues can holistically be connected to the basic question, despite the government of Thailand has released several regulations to prevent both issues but human trafficking and sexual slavery have been existing in Thailand.

Therefore, in order to elaborate these issues in-depth, this paper provides an overview of the global trade in the trafficking and sexual slavery practices into the sex industry in Thailand which will be connected to the ICCPR on articles 8 and 11 on addressing slavery and movement issues. It also sets out the explanation of both patterns based on the social and cultural context of Mekong’s society; discusses some of their impacts; and also difficulties in reaching consensus on the extent of these problems in Thailand. Finally, this academic paper is ended on conclusion and some points of recommendations.

Research Methodology

This mini research conducted by using qualitative methods. It is undertaken from June 5^th to 15^th, 2007 in Thailand when researcher engaged in primary data gathering, by mixing two main approaches. Primarily approach is In-depth community studies used Rapid Anthropological Assessment Procedures (RAAP) by disseminating semi formal in-depth interview instruments to the selected informants and doing participant observer in order to gather primary data that is related to human trafficking and prostitution patterns. Secondly is ethnography method by using Travel Diaries conducted in gathering many primary data related to the poverty patterns and practical implementation of Buddhist Cultures in Thai’s daily activities. This mini research is carried out in two districts in Chiang Rai province near the borderland between Thailand and Burma as well as at the Patpong sex tourism area at the down town of Bangkok.

From primary and secondary data gathering and doing the social mapping, researcher determined two main finding points. Primarily, the victims who are involved in these practices were identified as women and children, particularly from around Mekong region countries and also Indigenous People who live in the northern east part of Thailand due to the lack of citizenship status since Thai government released a controversial policy in 1976 to unacknowledged them as Thai citizen because they can not speak Thai and try to maintain their ethnic native languages. Secondly, there are at least four basic elements that have been supporting for the existence of these practices in Thailand, composed of poverty, Buddhist Culture implementation, and political issues in Burma. Researcher conducted both methods in the fields in order to gather as many as possible of basic elements that have been supporting for human trafficking and sexual slavery practices in Thailand, so that those primary evidences can allow the researcher to establish general patterns of background and impacts of both practices in the sex tourism in Thailand.

Thailand; Sex Tourism Gone Wrong

 “For too many men in the rest of the world, see women as objects, as something that can be bought and sold. A woman’s body is not the same as a glass of brandy or an ice cream after a good dinner”. (Swedish Deputy Prime Minister, Margareta Winberg in Burn, 2005, p. 179).

            There is no wonder that sex tourists are attracted to come to Thailand in droves. Sex tourism in Thailand can be traced back to the Vietnam War in the 1960’s when the American military would take their rest and recreation leave in places like Bangkok or any of the outlying beaches in the country. From then on, Thailand has gained a notorious reputation as a haven for sex tourists, spurred on by continuous demands from a large base of locals, mostly men and even larger group foreign tourists. It has been said that beyond the usual tourist offerings, both the government of Thailand and Thai people themselves promises far cheaper sexual services and a wide range of choices easily accessible and available for those whose definition of adventure involves sex.

Farang is the Thai term for foreigners, mostly Western or Japanese men who come to Thailand for the purpose of procuring sex and they are usually the primary market for the sex tour package trips. They are the main targets of sex operators who call their packages “exotic vacations” to the “Disneyland of the adult world”.  Prostitution is plainly about the sexual objectification of women, when they become commodities to be bought and sold and how women’s few economic options may force them into prostitution. Barry argues that prostitution is a form of sexual slavery because women and girls are held over time for sexual use and because getting out of prostitution requires escape (1995, p.32). According to the ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Right), particularly on article number 8 mentions that “No one shall be held in slavery; slavery and the slave-trade in all their forms shall be prohibited and No one shall be held in servitude”.

Some portion, thought by the UN, both international and local NGOs, and the government estimated about 200 thousand to 300 thousand sex industry workers in the country were either underage or in involuntary servitude or debt bondage (Inglis, 2005, p.71). Prostitution in Thailand comes in a number of forms, mainly brothels, body massage parlors, hostess bars, karaoke places, various go-go bars and beer bars which often cater to Western expatriates or tourists. Go-go bars as the famous sex tourism are distinguished by having dancing on stage similar to a strip club in western countries, dancers will more likely be topless or in a bikini or similar revealing costume rather than fully naked. Go-go bars operate the staff receive a monthly salary, from about 2,000 baht in some beer bars to about 10,000 baht in better go-go bars. Many of these bars are owned and operated by Westerners. Unfortunately, the effect of prostitution on women and children is overlooked by the Thai government, who use it to boost sexual tourism and major source of cash for economic development.

Majority of prostitutes were not kept under physical constraint, but a large number worked in debt bondage. Widespread sex tourism in Thailand encourages trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation. Trafficking within the country and from neighboring countries into the country tended to be carried out by loosely organized small groups that often had close ties in the source communities. Burmese, Laotian, Cambodian, Vietnamese and Thai individuals were involved in labor trafficking along the border. In some cases, the traffickers themselves were former victims.

Groomed for Sex;

From the Circle of Poverty, the Idea of Destiny

Toward the Repression Practices

Everyday people make decisions to leave their homes, communities and countries. Some leave because they are afraid. They are afraid for their lives, and for the lives of their children and loved ones. Others leave because their social or economic situation has compelled them to do so. People have always migrated from one location to another for purposes of survival and in an effort to increase their quality of life. There, they service the upper income and cooperate beneficiaries of globalization, such as prostitution. In Thai present society, visiting prostitutes is considered common but necessarily acceptable behavior for men. Therefore, many Thai’s women believe that this existence reduces the incidence of rape, and view prostitution as the lesser evil compared to husbands taking mistresses or mia noi in local language.

Sex trade and sex tourism as the huge impact of globalization are presently related to each other that can be supporting both existance in Thai present society. A significant number of women and children from Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam are economic migrants who wind up in forced or bonded labor and commercial sexual exploitation in Thailand. Regional economic disparities drive significant illegal migration into Thailand, presenting traffickers opportunities to move victims into labor or sexual exploitation. Internal trafficking also occurs in Thailand, involving victims from Northern east part of Thailand, especially ethnic hill tribe women and girls. The lack of citizenship status for some hill tribe women and children was a strong risk factor for becoming victims of trafficking. For many cases of these practices, some social, cultural and political elements outside or within Thai present society itself have been supporting into their existence.

Chart I: The Pattern of Human Trafficking and

Sexual Slavery in Thailand

Source: Primary data gathered on the field research in Thailand, June 2007

In Burma for instance, the repression and ethnic cleansing carried out by military junta have been triggering many women and children to move into Thailand as traffickers and trapped into prostitution’s practices in Bangkok or other tourism places all over Thailand to have a better livelihood in situation of safely and comfortable to continue their life. Furthermore, many people are fleeing from Burma is also because of forced labor that found millions of people had been pressed into servitude by the military junta. Here is how it usually works, the military junta demands that a village provide a certain number of works for a certain period of time. “The workers are given no food, no money, and no tools. We are then forced to work on roads or farms for days, weeks, or months at a time. We are supervised by soldiers, and if we refuse to work we are often killed. Many die while working as we are severely beaten and tortured. Even worse, many are forced to carry or porter weapons for the military junta deep inside Burma, and a lot are used as “human mine sweepers”. These people are forced to walk in front of troops of the military junta to search for landmines.” (Plai, Women Burmese Traffickers, the interview has taken on June 12^th, 2007 at 2.50 pm at the Golden Triangle, borderland area between Thailand and Burma in Chiang Rai province). The people are treated like animals, and soldiers don’t hesitate to execute civilians without reason. Women are executed after being raped, and children are executed to teach a lesson to local villagers. For Burma’s military junta, life is cheap and easily expendable.

The other factor that has been supporting the existence of human trafficking and sexual slavery is also related to the Buddhist culture practices that are still embedded in Thai and Mekong’s present societies, particularly for those who live in the countryside. “In Buddhist cultures the debt owed to parents by children is deeply imbued into families, especially in the countryside where the idea of destiny is wholeheartedly embraced” (Chay, Chiang Rai Girl, the interview has taken on June 11^th, 2007 at 11.47am in Chiang Rai province). For instance, Prey Vang Province in Cambodia is one of the poorest regions. It is easy to cross from there into Thailand so each year thousands of children are trafficked across the border, often by parents. The idea of destiny is wholeheartedly embraced in Buddhist culture as the old pattern in Mekong society when the daughter of the family has to take a responsibility to pay back the debt that made by your parents or relatives. Therefore, the daughters in the Buddhist family have a double burden because they have to supply and get income for their family as well as to taking care her parents and younger sisters or brothers as a part of their responsibility as its mentioned in their holy bible. So, what the daughter does is such debt owed agreement made by your parents or relatives when they got into debt with the debtor. For many cases, for those who were not able to pay the debt due to be trapped into poverty, they will sell the daughter to the broker in the countryside who will bring them to the many legal and illegal brothels in Bangkok or many other tourism places in Thailand. Sometimes it is just greed that makes parents turn a blind eye to what they are letting their own children in for.

Disease, Imprisoned and Protection;

The Impacts of Free Sex Market in Thailand

Human trafficking and sexual slavery are not only illegal practices as an impact of globalization and capitalism but one more deteriorated are their impacts toward the victims themselves. In Thailand’s case, HIV/AIDS disease and imprisoned threaten are the two main largest impacts of trafficking and prostitution. On the other hand, although the government of Thailand has released many regulations and law to reduce such practices, but in fact, they are really difficult to be stop due to the protection from Thai police itself.

For many HIV/AIDS cases, all of the girls and women who had been trafficked were provided contraceptives by the brothel owners. It was clearly in the owners’ interest to ensure their workers did not get pregnant. Since most, if not all, had come to Thailand as virgins, they were most likely infected by their clients. The use of unsterilized needles when they were given birth control injections, treated for infections or tested for AIDS in the brothels may also have been a factor. The brothel owners are preventing the women and girls from negotiating the terms of sexual intercourse, denying them appropriate health care, failing to inform them about the risk of exposure to HIV/AIDS and failing to insist that the clients use condoms. As a result, they are exposing these women and girls to greatly increased risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. Clearly, the brothel owners are in a position to prevent the mental and bodily harm that resulting from practices, and they should be held criminally negligent for failing to do so.

The arrest of the Mekong’s trafficked women and girls as prostitutes, or more routinely, as illegal immigrants is not only discriminatory and without sound legal justification, but also is frequently carried out in clear violation of basic principles of due process as provided both in international norms and in Thailand’s Criminal Procedure Code. Even the minimal due process protection provided in the Immigration Act is regularly ignored. International law sets forth a variety of due process protection for persons who have been arrested or detained. These principles are set forth in a number of instruments, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) article No.11 says that “No one shall be imprisoned merely on the ground of inability to fulfill a contractual obligation” and the Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment, which was adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1988, However, Thailand has not yet acceded to the ICCPR.

Despite clear national and international prohibitions on procurement and trafficking, such practices are not only widespread in Thailand, but in many instances occur with the direct involvement of Thai police or border guards. Thai border and provincial police control all roads from Burma, Cambodia and Lao borders into Thailand, and several border checkpoints have been set up. It is extremely difficult for them to cross the border and travel any distance without the knowledge and involvement of the Thai police. In many instances, brothels are located next door to or down the street from local police stations. “I was fifteen years old when I was brought to a brothel in Thailand. I often saw policemen around the brothel all the time. At least every ten days a group of uniformed policemen would come to see the owner. Sometimes they took girls. Other times they just had tea with the brothel owner” (Nilar, Burmese Girl, the interview has taken on June 14th, 2007 at 1.20pm in Bangkok). In many cases, the brothel agents are well supplied with money to pay them off. Once the women and girls are in the Thai brothels the involvement of the police persists. Brothels routinely operate with police knowledge and often with the benefit of police protection, despite the clear prohibition on such establishments under the Anti Prostitution Act.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Sexual tourism generally is yet an other example of how the effects of globalization are not gender neutral. It arises out of a globalized economy that makes sex work one of the only ways for some women to earn a living wage. The rapidly expanding international sex market exploits above all women and children, especially members of marginal and minority groups in Thailand. This leisure industry is based on the systematic violation of human rights, for it requires a market in commodified human beings and the complicity of pimps and clients who are prepared to buy and sell women and children.

In Thailand, some workers in the sex industry choose their work as a survival strategy and an economic advancement strategy, particularly for those who live in the suffering of poverty circle in the countryside of Mekong region which is bordered by Thailand itself. Moreover, the Buddhist Culture is indirectly also supporting the existence of human trafficking and sexual slavery with its values of the idea of destiny that has been embedded and wholeheartedly belief as a part of sacrifice to the Buddha. On the other side, in particular reason of Burmese women and children who involved in these practices are inevitably caused by repression and various human rights violation implementation by Burmese military junta to their citizen, particularly women and children. Moreover, these practices are always exposed to significant health risks in the form of violence and disease, such HIV/AIDS.

The Thai government has taken some initial steps to reform domestic laws relevant to the issues addressed on these practices. It has also established a unit within the Crime Suppression Division of the police to deal with forced and child prostitution. But the legal efforts have stalled, and without the political will to prosecute the traffickers and fully protect the victims, the abuses against women and children are likely to continue.

None of the measures needed to stop human trafficking, sexual slavery and related abuses will take place without concerted international pressure. Therefore, one the most important things to reduce these practices are giving pressure to the Thai government that must come from countries like Japan and the United States which have close relations with Thailand as well as form the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) which also have an interest in ending trafficking and sexual slavery. Furthermore, China, whose women are also being sold into Thai brothels, and from international organizations such as the United Nations have to take a responsibility and play a crucial role to stop these exploitation practices of human being commodification in Thailand and Mekong Region generally.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibliography

 

Bary, K. (1995), The Prostitution of Sexuality. New York: New York University Press.

Burn, Shawn Meghan (2005). Women Across Cultures; A Global Perspective. California: California Polytechnic State University

Inglis, Shelley Case (2005), Human Trafficking and Security. Costa Rica: Reading Materials of International Peace Studies at the University for Peace.

Malarek,Victor (1998), The Natashas: Inside the New Global Sex Trade. New York: The Haworth Press

Poulin, Richard (2003), Globalization and the Sex Trade: Trafficking and the Commodification of Women and Children. Canada: The Canadian Women Studies/Les cahiers de la femme Vol.22.

Website Sources:

Human Rights Watch (2004), Thailand: End Crackdown on Burmese Fleeing Abuses.   Retrieved Oct 14, 2007 from http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/02/25/thaila7656.htm.

Human Rights Watch (1993), A Modern Form of Slavery; Trafficking of Burmese Women and Girls into Brothels in Thailand. Retrieved Oct 12, 2007 from http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/thailand/#_1_33

Human Trafficking.org (2005), Thailand Watch. Retrieved Oct 12, 2007 from www.human-trafficking.org

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Right (1976), International Covenant on Civil and Political Right. Retrieved Oct 7, 2007 from www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm.

 

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